Chapter 4: Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation
Class 9 Social Science | Understanding Society: India and Beyond | Grade 9 – Part 1
Part 1 — Short Notes & Important Concepts
Chapter Summary
Early human history covers the very long period before writing was invented. We learn about this period mainly through archaeology, fossils, tools, cave art and other material remains. Humans evolved in Africa and gradually migrated to different parts of the world. They first lived mainly as hunter-gatherers and later began farming and domesticating animals. This Neolithic Revolution led to permanent settlements and eventually to cities and civilisations.
Major Bronze Age civilisations such as the Sindhu–Sarasvatī, Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Chinese civilisations developed in fertile river valleys. They developed agriculture, crafts, trade, writing, administration, architecture and organised societies.
The Big Questions
- How did humans live on Earth before the beginning of civilisation?
- How did humans communicate before writing was invented?
- How is archaeology helpful in understanding our past?
- How did early civilisations interact with each other?
1. Early Human History
- The period before writing is known mainly through archaeological evidence.
- Important evidence includes tools, fossils, pottery, bones, settlements and cave paintings.
- More than 99% of human history belongs to the period before writing.
- Written records became important only during the last few thousand years.
2. Before and After Writing
| Before Writing | After Writing |
|---|---|
| Tools and other artefacts are major sources. | Material remains and written records are available. |
| People’s thoughts and names are harder to know. | Written documents give information about people and events. |
| Dates are generally approximate. | Written dates make chronology more accurate. |
3. Early Writing Systems
- Harappan/Sindhu lipi: pictographic script found on seals and pottery; it has not yet been deciphered.
- Cuneiform: wedge-shaped writing developed by the Sumerians in Mesopotamia; it has been deciphered.
- Egyptian hieroglyphic script: an ancient Egyptian writing system; deciphered with the help of the Rosetta Stone.
- Brahmi: used in parts of India from about 400 BCE and later formalised during the time of Aśhoka.
4. Why Study Early Human History?
- It helps us understand biological and cultural evolution.
- It shows how humans adapted to changing climate and environment.
- Humans developed tools and technologies to use natural resources.
- Human life gradually changed from hunting and gathering to farming and food production.
- Surplus food helped settlements grow and laid the foundation for civilisation.
5. Evolution and Migration
- Early human ancestors evolved in Africa.
- Homo erectus was among the first hominins to migrate out of Africa, around 2 million years ago.
- Homo sapiens evolved in Africa around 300,000 years ago.
- A major movement of early Homo sapiens out of Africa occurred around 125,000 years ago.
6. Archaeology
Archaeologists study remains left by people in the past. They examine tools, bones, fossils, pottery, buildings, paintings and other objects to reconstruct how early people lived.
Fossil: Preserved remains, traces or impressions of plants, animals or humans from the distant past.
Hominin: A group that includes modern humans and their early human-like ancestors.
7. Important Early Human Ancestors
| Ancestor | Important Features |
|---|---|
| Homo habilis | Lived in Africa; associated with early stone tools such as choppers. |
| Homo erectus | Used handaxes and cleavers; among the first hominins to migrate out of Africa. |
| Homo neanderthalensis | Lived in Europe and Southwest Asia; used Middle Palaeolithic tools. |
| Homo sapiens | Modern humans; developed complex technologies and spread across the world. |
8. Periods of Early Human History
Palaeolithic
Old Stone Age
Old Stone Age
Mesolithic
Middle Stone Age
Middle Stone Age
Neolithic
New Stone Age
New Stone Age
Chalcolithic
Copper + Stone
Copper + Stone
| Period | Main Features |
|---|---|
| Palaeolithic | Hunter-gatherers; simple stone tools; caves and open camps. |
| Mesolithic | Microlithic tools; fishing and hunting; temporary settlements; cave art. |
| Neolithic | Agriculture; domestication; polished stone tools; pottery; permanent villages. |
| Chalcolithic | Use of copper along with stone tools; early metallurgy. |
| Bronze Age | Bronze metallurgy; cities; trade; early civilisations. |
| Iron Age | Widespread use of iron; stronger tools and weapons; advanced societies. |
9. Palaeolithic Hunter-Gatherers
- Palaeolithic means Old Stone Age.
- People mainly depended on hunting and gathering.
- Tools included handaxes, cleavers, scrapers, borers and points.
- Later, humans developed bows and arrows, blades and microliths.
- They made cave paintings and symbolic art.
- They also made beads from stone, bone and shell.
10. Mesolithic Hunter-Gatherers
- Around 12,000 years ago, the climate became warmer.
- Forests and grasslands expanded.
- People used tiny stone tools called microliths.
- Fishing and collecting aquatic food became important.
- Art activity flourished.
- Bhimbetka contains hundreds of painted rock shelters.
11. The Neolithic Revolution
- Humans gradually changed from hunting-gathering to food production.
- Plants and animals were domesticated.
- People began cultivating crops and keeping livestock.
- Permanent villages developed.
- Pottery and new tools were made for food production and storage.
- Surplus food supported population growth and later urbanisation.
Why “revolution”? Farming changed food production, settlement, population,
occupations and social organisation in a major way.
12. Neolithic Period in the Indian Subcontinent
- Mehrgarh was an important early Neolithic site in present-day Pakistan.
- It dates back to about 7000 BCE.
- People cultivated wheat and barley and raised sheep, goats and cattle.
- They built mud-brick houses and granaries.
- They made ornaments from semi-precious stones and shells.
- Use of copper later connected some communities with the Chalcolithic period.
13. Sindhu–Sarasvatī Civilisation
- Early developments grew from Neolithic and Chalcolithic communities.
- Copper tools increased agricultural productivity.
- Pottery, beads, shell work and copper work developed.
- Early Harappan settlements show cultural continuity.
- Urban Harappan civilisation emerged around 2600 BCE.
- Harappans developed cities, trade, crafts, standard weights and writing.
- Kalibangan provides evidence of ancient ploughed fields.
- Dholavira is famous for advanced water management.
- Lothal is known for its impressive dockyard.
14. Harappan Weights and Trade
Harappans used standard systems of weights and measures. Smaller units followed a binary pattern such as 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, while larger denominations used multiples of ten. Standard weights helped make long-distance trade easier and fairer.
15. Bronze Age Civilisations
| Civilisation | Main River/Region | Important Features |
|---|---|---|
| Sindhu–Sarasvatī | Indus and Ghaggar-Sarasvatī regions | Planned cities, drainage, water management, crafts, trade, weights and seals. |
| Mesopotamian | Tigris and Euphrates | City-states, irrigation, cuneiform, temples, trade and administration. |
| Egyptian | Nile | Agriculture, writing, calendar, pyramids, government and mummification. |
| Chinese | Huang He and Yangtze | Bronze technology, writing, jade craft, dynasties, silk and administration. |
16. Why Were Rivers Important?
- Provided water for drinking and farming.
- Made fertile agricultural land available.
- Supported large populations.
- Helped transport and trade.
- Floods could also destroy crops and settlements.
- Managing water required cooperation and administration.
17. Mesopotamian Civilisation
- Mesopotamia means “land in between” the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
- The region included parts of modern Iraq, Kuwait, Turkey and southwestern Iran.
- Major city-based civilisations included Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian and Babylonian.
- Sumerians developed irrigation canals, dams and brick construction.
- They built large temples called ziggurats.
- They developed cuneiform writing.
- They used a base-60 number system, linked to 60 minutes, 60 seconds and 360 degrees.
18. Akkadians, Assyrians and Babylonians
- Akkadians: formed a large empire; Sargon was an important ruler.
- Assyrians: developed power in northern Mesopotamia.
- Babylonians: became powerful in central Mesopotamia.
- Hammurabi: famous for the Code of Hammurabi, a collection of laws.
- Mesopotamian records mention trade with regions associated with Meluhha, Dilmun and Magan.
19. Egyptian Civilisation
- Developed along the Nile River.
- Annual floods deposited fertile soil and supported agriculture.
- Egyptians developed irrigation and a calendar based on Nile floods.
- Rulers were called Pharaohs.
- Pyramids were connected with beliefs about life after death.
- Mummification preserved the dead body.
- Egyptians used papyrus for writing.
- The Rosetta Stone helped Champollion decipher Egyptian writing.
- Egyptian women could own property and run businesses.
20. Chinese Civilisation
- Developed around the Huang He and Yangtze rivers.
- Neolithic cultures existed from around 7000 BCE.
- Bronze metallurgy helped the growth of early states.
- Important Bronze Age dynasties included Shang and Zhou.
- Iron became popular around 600 BCE.
- Oracle bones provide early evidence about Chinese beliefs and society.
- Chinese civilisation was known for bronze work, jade, silk and writing.
- The Great Wall developed through construction by different dynasties.
- Silk became an important trade item and gave its name to the Silk Route.
21. Key Terms
| Term | Easy Meaning |
|---|---|
| Archaeology | Study of past human life through material remains. |
| Artefact | An object made or used by humans in the past. |
| Fossil | Preserved remains or traces of ancient life. |
| Hominin | Modern humans and their early human-like ancestors. |
| Neolithic Revolution | Major shift from hunting-gathering to farming and settled life. |
| Chalcolithic | Period of using copper along with stone tools. |
| City-State | A state centred on a city and controlling nearby territory. |
| Ziggurat | Stepped temple structure of ancient Mesopotamia. |
| Cuneiform | Wedge-shaped writing system of Mesopotamia. |
| Papyrus | Writing material made from the papyrus plant. |
| Mummification | Process used by Egyptians to preserve dead bodies. |
Before We Move On — Quick Revision
- Early human history is studied mainly through archaeology.
- Humans evolved in Africa and migrated to other regions.
- Palaeolithic humans were mainly hunter-gatherers.
- Mesolithic people used microliths and expanded fishing and other food-gathering activities.
- Neolithic people adopted farming, domestication and permanent settlements.
- Chalcolithic communities used copper along with stone.
- Bronze Age civilisations developed cities, trade, writing and administration.
- Major early civilisations developed in fertile river valleys.
Part 2 — Book Solutions
Think About It & Let’s Explore
Why do you think early humans left Africa to migrate to other regions?
Answer: They may have moved in search of food, water, better climates,
new hunting grounds and safer places to live. Population pressure and changing
environments may also have encouraged migration.
Æ Do you notice any changes in the shape or features of the skulls across different ancestors?
Answer: Yes. The skulls gradually show changes in shape, size and facial features as human ancestors evolved.
Æ Can you observe a gradual straightening of the face?
Answer: Yes. The face becomes gradually less projecting and more upright in the later ancestors.
Why do you think the shift to farming during the Neolithic period is called a revolution rather than a simple change? Discuss with your classmates.
Answer: Farming changed human life greatly. People began producing food,
domesticating animals, living in permanent villages and developing new occupations and technologies.
Observe the chart (Fig. 4.14) and identify the animals that were domesticated. Also try and identify the types of human habitats and objects that were used. Are any of these still used in present times?
Answer: Animals included livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats.
People lived in settled villages and used pottery, tools, houses and storage facilities.
Many of these are still used today, although in improved forms.
Can you imagine how long-distance trade would have been affected had the Harappans not followed a standard system of weights?
Answer: Trade would have become less reliable. Buyers and sellers might disagree
about quantities, making long-distance trade more difficult and less fair.
Why were rivers important in the growth of early civilisations?
Answer: Rivers provided water, fertile soil and transport routes.
They supported farming, food production, population growth and trade.
Can you find out which countries constitute West Asia in present times?
Answer: West Asia broadly includes countries such as Iraq, Iran,
Saudi Arabia, Türkiye, Syria, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar,
the United Arab Emirates, Oman and Yemen, among others.
Do you find any similarities between the temples in India and those of the Sumerian civilisation as centres of socio-cultural and economic activity?
Answer: Yes. Both could act as religious as well as social centres.
Temples could support festivals, community activities and economic functions.
The cuneiform writing system was contemporary to the Harappan script, but while cuneiform has been deciphered, the Harappan script has not yet been deciphered. Do you think our understanding of a civilisation changes when its script is deciphered compared to when it is not?
Answer: Yes. A deciphered script can directly tell us about names,
events, beliefs, laws, trade and administration. An undeciphered script makes such information much harder to understand.
The Epic of Gilgamesh, written during the Mesopotamian civilisation, is one of the earliest stories written. Try and find out more such stories and share them in class.
Answer: Examples include ancient Egyptian stories, Indian epics such as
the Ramayana and Mahabharata, and other traditional stories preserved from early societies.
Why do you think there is a scale with a heart on one side and a feather on the other (fig. 4.29)? What can this papyrus tell us about early Egyptian beliefs?
Answer: The heart was believed to represent a person’s deeds and character,
while the feather represented truth or justice. The image shows the Egyptian belief in judgement after death.
Can you locate the River Nile on the given map? Why do you think the northern part is called Lower Egypt and the southern part Upper Egypt?
Answer: The Nile flows from south to north. Therefore, the northern,
lower part of the river is called Lower Egypt, while the southern, higher part is called Upper Egypt.
Look at the social hierarchy pyramid in the image. What were the social classes of early Egypt? What were the different kinds of occupations? What could have been a typical daily routine of the people from each class?
Answer: The classes included Pharaohs and rulers, officials, nobles and priests,
free landholders, artisans and merchants, and serfs and slaves. Occupations included administration,
farming, craftwork, trade, religious duties and manual labour.
Observe the images given above. What do they tell you about Egyptian fashion?
Answer: They show that Egyptians used clothing, jewellery and ornaments as part of daily life.
Materials and designs could also indicate social status.
Which social classes do you think used these items?
Answer: Richer classes such as nobles, officials and wealthy merchants probably used more elaborate jewellery and accessories,
while ordinary people used simpler items.
What clues in the images help you to make this guess?
Answer: The materials, quality, decoration, size and complexity of the objects give clues about the user’s social position.
Try to explain your reasoning based on the materials, designs, or accessories shown in the pictures.
Answer: Expensive materials and detailed designs usually required greater wealth and skill,
so such objects were more likely to belong to higher social groups.
The Chinese civilisation flourished along the rivers— the Huang He (Yellow River) and the Yangtze. These two river valleys were also centres of early Chinese Neolithic cultures dating to around 7000 BCE. Around 2000 BCE, the introduction of copper/bronze metallurgy brought many of the Neolithic settlements, especially those in the Yellow River basin, to the threshold of the Bronze Age. However, it was only around 1600 BCE that urban centres began to emerge with the expansion of agricultural productivity and advancements in metallurgy and craft production. These events led to the rise of the first Chinese Bronze Age territorial empire.
Answer: This passage shows that rivers supported agriculture and settlement,
while improvements in metallurgy and crafts helped societies grow into larger and more organised urban centres.
Explore more examples of Chinese characters that resemble the objects or ideas they represent. Note down at least two such characters and explain how their shapes are connected to their meanings.
Answer: Examples can include 木 meaning “tree/wood” and 山 meaning “mountain”.
Their shapes are related to the objects they represent.
What could have been the other reasons for building the Great Wall of China? Explore and share your findings on the Great Wall through a model or presentation.
Answer: Besides defence, walls could help control movement, protect trade routes,
mark boundaries and regulate access to important areas.
Do you remember studying about the Silk Route in Grade 7? How was India connected with it? Can you recollect China’s contact with India with reference to Buddhism that you studied in Grade 7?
Answer: India was connected with the Silk Route through land and sea trade.
Trade and travel also helped Buddhism spread from India towards Central and East Asia, including China.
Questions and Activities
1. Do you think life became easier or more challenging after humans started farming? Give two reasons for your answer.
Answer: Farming made some aspects of life easier but also created new challenges.
1. People could produce a regular food supply.
2. They had to work regularly, protect crops, manage water and face risks such as droughts and crop failure.
1. People could produce a regular food supply.
2. They had to work regularly, protect crops, manage water and face risks such as droughts and crop failure.
2. The environment offers human societies both opportunities as well as challenges. Explain with reference to early farming communities and river-valley civilisations.
Answer: Fertile soil and rivers provided water and helped farming and trade.
However, floods, droughts, changing climate and other environmental problems could damage crops and settlements.
3. Why do historians divide early human history into different ages such as Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age? What does this classification tell us about human progress?
Answer: Historians use these ages to show major changes in technology and ways of life.
The classification shows progress from simple stone tools to metal technology, agriculture, cities and more complex societies.
4. Imagine you are a Neolithic farmer. Describe one day of your life. What challenges would you face that a hunter-gatherer would not?
Answer: I would wake early, tend crops, care for animals, collect water, repair tools and store food.
Unlike a hunter-gatherer, I would have to protect crops and animals, maintain the fields and remain in one settlement for longer periods.
5. Imagine that the Harappan script gets deciphered tomorrow. What new types of information do you think historians might learn?
Answer: Historians might learn about Harappan rulers, people, trade,
religion, laws, occupations, administration, cities and daily life.
6. Prepare a table with three columns—Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic—and fill in their distinctive features: tools, settlements, art, and subsistence.
Answer:
| Palaeolithic | Mesolithic | Neolithic |
|---|---|---|
|
Tools: handaxes, cleavers, scrapers Settlements: caves/open camps Art: early cave art Subsistence: hunting and gathering |
Tools: microliths, bone points Settlements: temporary settlements, caves and rock shelters Art: rock paintings Subsistence: hunting, gathering and fishing |
Tools: polished stone tools and farming tools Settlements: permanent villages Art: pottery and decorative objects Subsistence: agriculture and animal domestication |
7. “Bronze Age civilisations developed independently but shared common features.” Examine this statement with reference to the civilisations given in the chapter.
Answer: The Sindhu–Sarasvatī, Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Chinese civilisations
developed in different regions. Yet they shared features such as river-based agriculture,
cities, crafts, trade, social hierarchy, administration and writing.
8. Although rivers provided many benefits, they also created challenges for early societies. Discuss both the advantages and disadvantages of settling near rivers.
Answer:
Advantages: water, fertile soil, agriculture, transport, fishing and trade.
Disadvantages: floods, destruction of crops and houses, water-related diseases and the need for flood control.
Advantages: water, fertile soil, agriculture, transport, fishing and trade.
Disadvantages: floods, destruction of crops and houses, water-related diseases and the need for flood control.
9. With the help of your teacher, find out more about the Code of Hammurabi. Why was it important? Do you think it was fair to all sections of society? Give reasons for your answer.
Answer: The Code of Hammurabi was a collection of laws made during Hammurabi’s rule.
It was important because it provided rules for civil and social conduct. It was not necessarily
fair to all people because punishments and rights could differ according to social status.
10. If you had to choose one major innovation from early civilisations that changed the world permanently, what would it be and why?
Answer: I would choose writing. It allowed people to record laws,
trade, knowledge, history and ideas and pass them to future generations.
11. Compare the social hierarchy and daily life of people in the Egyptian civilisation with those in Mesopotamia or China. What similarities and differences do you notice?
Answer:
Similarities: Both had rulers, officials, priests, farmers, artisans and labourers. Farming and craftwork were important.
Differences: Egypt was strongly linked to the Nile and Pharaohs, while Mesopotamia had many city-states and China developed through different dynasties.
Similarities: Both had rulers, officials, priests, farmers, artisans and labourers. Farming and craftwork were important.
Differences: Egypt was strongly linked to the Nile and Pharaohs, while Mesopotamia had many city-states and China developed through different dynasties.
12. Activity: Using maps, locate the major rivers and civilisations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, China, and the Sindhu–Sarasvatī Valley. Mark the trade links between them.
Answer:
| Civilisation | Major Rivers | Important Trade Connections |
|---|---|---|
| Mesopotamia | Tigris and Euphrates | Connected with the Sindhu–Sarasvatī region through Gulf and overland routes. |
| Egypt | Nile | Connected with neighbouring African and West Asian regions. |
| China | Huang He and Yangtze | Connected through Central Asian trade routes, including the Silk Route. |
| Sindhu–Sarasvatī | Indus and Ghaggar-Sarasvatī systems | Had important contacts with Mesopotamia and Gulf regions. |
13. Activity: Choose one early civilisation (Mesopotamia, Egypt, or China) and prepare a mini-scrapbook or a presentation showing their innovations in tools, writing, art, and architecture. Include pictures, brief descriptions, and explain their significanc
Answer: Sample choice: Mesopotamian Civilisation
Tools: irrigation tools, metal objects and wheeled carts.
Writing: cuneiform on clay tablets.
Art: decorated objects, seals and sculptures.
Architecture: ziggurats, temples, palaces and city structures.
Significance: These innovations supported agriculture, administration, trade, religious life and the growth of cities.
Tools: irrigation tools, metal objects and wheeled carts.
Writing: cuneiform on clay tablets.
Art: decorated objects, seals and sculptures.
Architecture: ziggurats, temples, palaces and city structures.
Significance: These innovations supported agriculture, administration, trade, religious life and the growth of cities.
Chapter at a Glance
| Stage | Main Change |
|---|---|
| Early Humans | Evolution and migration from Africa. |
| Palaeolithic | Hunter-gathering and stone tools. |
| Mesolithic | Microliths, fishing and changing habitats. |
| Neolithic | Farming, domestication and villages. |
| Chalcolithic | Copper used with stone tools. |
| Bronze Age | Cities, trade, writing and organised societies. |