Class 7 Social Science Part 1 Chapter 4 – New Beginnings: Cities and States with easy NCERT and CBSE Notes, Solutions, Questions & Answers and Worksheet. Learn about the emergence of cities, states, settlements, political developments and changing societies in early India.
Chapter 4 – New Beginnings: Cities and States
Class 7 Social Science – Exploring Society: India and Beyond
Grade 7 Part 1 | Easy Notes and Textbook Solutions
The Big Questions
- What is meant by ‘Second Urbanisation of India’?
- Why were the janapadas and mahājanapadas an important development in India’s early history?
- What kind of system of governance did they evolve?
India’s First Urbanisation
The Indus or Harappan civilisation is often called India’s First Urbanisation.
It had planned cities, busy markets, specialised occupations, writing, sanitation systems, public structures and administration.
After about the early 2nd millennium BCE, this urban system declined. Some cities were abandoned, while some people returned to village life.
Second Urbanisation
During the 1st millennium BCE, a new phase of urbanisation began, especially in the Ganga plains and nearby regions.
This is called the Second Urbanisation of India. It later spread to many other parts of the Subcontinent.
We know about this period from:
- Archaeological excavations
- Ancient literature
- Late Vedic literature
- Buddhist literature
- Jain literature
What was a Janapada?
The word janapada comes from Sanskrit. It refers to a territory where a group of people had settled.
Clans or groups of people gradually became associated with particular territories. Each janapada had a ruler or rājā.
As trade networks expanded, some janapadas became larger and more powerful.
Mahājanapadas
By about the 8th or 7th centuries BCE, some janapadas joined or merged into larger states called mahājanapadas.
The commonly mentioned list contains 16 mahājanapadas. They stretched from Gandhāra in the northwest to Anga in the east and Aśhmaka in central India.
| Mahājanapada | Capital mentioned in the chapter |
|---|---|
| Anga | Champā |
| Magadha | Rājagṛiha |
| Kosala | Śhrāvastī |
| Vṛijji | Vaiśhālī |
| Malla | Kushīnāra |
| Vatsa | Kauśhāmbī |
| Avanti | Ujjayinī |
| Gāndhāra | Takṣhaśhilā and Pushkalavati |
| Śhūrasena | Mathurā |
| Matsya | Virāṭa |
| Kuru | Indraprastha |
| Pāñchāla | Ahichchhatra |
| Chēdi | Tripuri |
| Aśhmaka | Capital not specified in the map text |
| Kamboja | Capital not specified in the map text |
THINK ABOUT IT
Notice how many of the mahājanapadas are concentrated in the Ganga plains. There are several possible reasons for this, including the growth of agriculture in the fertile Ganga plains, the availability of iron ore in the mountains and hills (see below about iron), and the formation of new trade networks.
LET’S EXPLORE
Æ The most powerful of these new states were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti. Looking at the map, can you identify their capitals? Also, how many can you match with Indian cities of today?
- Magadha – Rājagṛiha, present-day Rajgir.
- Kosala – Śhrāvastī.
- Vatsa – Kauśhāmbī.
- Avanti – Ujjayinī, present-day Ujjain.
Rajgir and Ujjain can easily be connected with modern Indian cities.
Æ Compare this map with the map of the regions mentioned in the Mahābhārata (see Fig. 5.4 in the chapter ‘India, That Is Bharat’ in Grade 6) and list the names common to both maps. What do you think this implies?
Ancient Fortified Cities
Many mahājanapada capitals were large and well-fortified cities. They often had walls and a moat around them.
The gateways could be narrow so that guards could control the movement of people and goods.
Many of these ancient capitals continue to exist as living cities today.
Sabhā and Samiti
Each janapada had an assembly or council called sabhā or samiti.
Important matters were discussed in these assemblies. Many members were probably elders of the clan.
The rājā was expected to listen to the advice of the assembly, ministers and administrators.
Monarchies
Some mahājanapadas were monarchies. The rājā was the main authority and was supported by ministers and an assembly of elders.
The king collected revenue, maintained law and order, built fortifications and maintained an army.
Magadha, Kosala and Avanti were powerful states of this type.
Early Republics
Vajji and Malla had a different system. Their assemblies had greater power and important decisions were made through discussion and sometimes voting.
The assembly could even select the rājā. These states were called gaṇas or sanghas.
Scholars often call them early republics.
Iron Technology
Iron metallurgy became an important technology during this period. Iron tools helped farmers clear land and increase agricultural production.
Iron was also useful for making weapons such as swords, spears and arrows.
Better farming and tools helped support growing towns and cities.
Coins and Trade
Growing trade created a need for coins. The earliest Indian coins mentioned in the chapter were made of silver. They are called punch-marked coins because symbols were punched onto them.
Later, coins were also made from copper, gold and other metals.
LET’S EXPLORE
Fill up the following table with a Yes (or tick mark) or No (or cross mark) in each square, which provides an interesting comparison between these two phases of Indian civilisation.
| Feature | First Urbanisation | Second Urbanisation |
|---|---|---|
| Ganga plains | Yes / No | Yes / No |
| Monasteries | Yes / No | Yes / No |
| Literature | Yes / No | Yes / No |
| Trade | Yes / No | Yes / No |
| Warfare | Yes / No | Yes / No |
| Copper / bronze | Yes / No | Yes / No |
| Iron | Yes / No | Yes / No |
The Second Urbanisation is especially associated with the Ganga plains, monasteries, extensive literary evidence, expanding trade, warfare and widespread iron technology. Copper and bronze were important in the First Urbanisation as well.
Why did societies form groups?
As societies became more complex, people performed different kinds of work such as farming, trade, administration, crafts, education, religion and metalworking.
Different groups helped society perform these different activities. However, divisions could also create differences in wealth, power and social status.
Jāti
A jāti was a group or community traditionally associated with a particular occupation or livelihood.
Skills were often passed from one generation to another. Jātis could also have sub-jātis with their own customs and traditions.
Varṇa
The concept of varṇa emerged from Vedic texts. The chapter describes four varṇas:
| Varṇa | Traditional role described in the chapter |
|---|---|
| Brahmins | Preserving knowledge and performing rituals |
| Kshatriyas | Defending society and the land |
| Vaishyas | Trade, business and agriculture |
| Shudras | Artisans, craftspeople, workers or servants |
Changes over Time
Historical evidence shows that people and communities could change their occupations when circumstances required it.
Over time, however, the system became more rigid and inequalities and discrimination developed.
The chapter also explains that the system was more flexible in earlier periods and changed over time.
LET’S EXPLORE
Æ Why should a complex society divide itself into such groups? Think about several possible factors why this happens.
Æ List other such professions you expect in a complex society of the 1st millennium BCE.
THINK ABOUT IT
Inequalities within society can exist in many forms. Have you encountered any incident where you or anyone you know might have been made to feel different from others? Do you think equality is desirable in a society? If so, why? Have you come across people or initiatives that lessened inequalities?
Trade and Communication Routes
During the 1st millennium BCE, important routes developed for trade, pilgrimage and military activities.
Uttarapatha
The Uttarapatha connected northwestern regions with the Ganga plains and eastern India.
Dakṣhiṇapatha
The Dakṣhiṇapatha began near Kauśhāmbī, crossed the Vindhya hills and continued towards southern India.
Growth of Cities in Other Regions
Important cities developed in eastern and southern India.
Śhiśhupalgarh near present-day Bhubaneswar had fortifications, broad streets and a planned square layout.
In southern India, the Cholas, Cheras and Pāṇḍyas emerged as important kingdoms around this period.
Southern Trade
Southern India had valuable resources such as precious stones, gold and spices. These were traded with other parts of India and with overseas regions.
By about 300 or 200 BCE, almost the entire Subcontinent had become a vibrant interconnected region.
Goods, people, ideas and culture travelled between different regions. Trade also connected India with parts of Central and Southeast Asia.
The mahājanapadas eventually ceased to exist and new kingdoms and empires developed.
| Period | Important Development |
|---|---|
| Early 2nd millennium BCE | Decline of the Harappan urban system |
| End of 2nd millennium BCE | Janapadas developed in parts of north and central India |
| 8th–7th centuries BCE | Mahājanapadas developed |
| 1st millennium BCE | Second Urbanisation expanded |
| About 400 BCE | Cities increasingly emerged in southern regions |
| 300–200 BCE | Subcontinent became strongly interconnected |
| By about 300 BCE | Mahājanapadas ceased to exist |
Magadha – Rājagṛiha; Kosala – Śhrāvastī; Vatsa – Kauśhāmbī; Avanti – Ujjayinī.
Rājagṛiha is associated with present-day Rajgir and Ujjayinī with present-day Ujjain.
| Feature | First Urbanisation | Second Urbanisation |
|---|---|---|
| Ganga plains | No | Yes |
| Monasteries | No | Yes |
| Literature | Limited evidence of a writing system | Yes |
| Trade | Yes | Yes |
| Warfare | Yes | Yes |
| Copper / bronze | Yes | Yes |
| Iron | No | Yes |
- Archaeological remains: Tell us about cities, buildings, roads, forts and daily life.
- Coins: Give information about trade, economy and rulers.
- Literature: Gives information about rulers, states, society and ideas.
- Inscriptions: Can provide information about people, rulers and events.
- Maps and excavated sites: Help us understand locations and connections between places.
Remember These Points
- The Harappan civilisation is known as India’s First Urbanisation.
- The Second Urbanisation began during the 1st millennium BCE.
- Janapadas were early territorial states.
- Some janapadas grew into larger mahājanapadas.
- There were commonly 16 mahājanapadas.
- Many mahājanapadas were concentrated in the fertile Ganga plains.
- Some states were monarchies.
- Vajji and Malla had assemblies with greater decision-making power.
- Iron technology helped agriculture and warfare.
- Punch-marked coins supported growing trade.
- The varṇa-jāti system organised many aspects of society but also developed inequalities over time.
- Uttarapatha and Dakṣhiṇapatha were important communication routes.
- Trade connected different parts of the Subcontinent.
- By about 300–200 BCE, India had become strongly interconnected.
| Topic | Easy Meaning |
|---|---|
| First Urbanisation | Urban civilisation associated with the Indus/Harappan civilisation |
| Second Urbanisation | New growth of cities beginning in the 1st millennium BCE |
| Janapada | Territory settled by a group of people |
| Mahājanapada | Larger and more powerful state |
| Sabhā / Samiti | Assembly or council |
| Gaṇa / Sangha | System in which an assembly had major political power |
| Iron | Important for farming tools and weapons |
| Punch-marked coins | Early coins carrying punched symbols |
| Uttarapatha | Important route connecting northwestern and northern/eastern regions |
| Dakṣhiṇapatha | Important route leading towards southern India |
Try this worksheet to revise the chapter 4, practise important questions, and check your understanding. It will help you strengthen your preparation and identify the topics that need more revision.
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